Vilijam Šokli
Vilijam Bredford Školi mlađi (engl. William Bradford Shockley Jr.; 13. februar 1910. — 12. avgust 1989) bio je američki fizičar i pronalazač.[1] Dobio je Nobelovu nagradu za fiziku 1956. godine „za istraživanja poluprovodnika i pronalazak tranzistorskog efekta”.[2][3]
| Vilijam Bredford Šokli mlađi | |
|---|---|
 | |
| Lični podaci | |
| Datum rođenja | 13. februar 1910. |
| Mesto rođenja | Širi London, Engleska, Ujedinjeno Kraljevstvo |
| Datum smrti | 12. avgust 1989. (79 god.) |
| Mesto smrti | Stanford, SAD |
| Državljanstvo | SAD |
| Obrazovanje | Masačusetski tehnološki institut Kalifornijski tehnološki institut |
| Naučni rad | |
| Polje | Fizika |
| Nagrade | Nobelova nagrada za fiziku (1956) |
Delimično kao rezultat Šoklijevih pokušaja da komercijalizuje novi dizajn tranzistora tokom 1950-ih i 1960-ih, kalifornijska Silicijumska dolina postala je leglo inovacija u elektronici.
U svom kasnijem životu, dok je bio profesor elektrotehnike na Univerzitetu Stanford i kasnije, Šokli je postao nadaleko poznat po svojim ekstremnim pogledima na rasu i zalaganju za eugeniku.[4][5][6][7]
Mladost i obrazovanje
urediŠokli je rođen od američkih roditelja u Londonu 13. februara 1910. godine, a odrastao je u rodnom gradu svoje porodice, Palo Altu u Kaliforniji, od svoje treće godine.[8] Njegov otac, Vilijam Hilman Šokli, bio je rudarski inženjer koji se profesionalno bavio rudarstvom i govorio je osam jezika. Njegova majka, Mej (rođena Bredford), odrasla je na američkom zapadu, diplomirala je na Univerzitetu Stenford i postala prva žena zamenik geodeta za rudarstvo u SAD.[9] Šokli je bio školovan kod kuće sve do osme godine, zbog nesklonosti njegovih roditelja prema javnim školama, kao i Šoklijeve navike nasilnih napada besa.[10] Šokli je u mladosti naučio fiziku od komšije koji je bio profesor fizike na Stanfordu.[11] Šokli je proveo dve godine na vojnoj akademiji Palo Alto, zatim se nakratko upisao u školu za trenere u Los Anđelesu da bi studirao fiziku i kasnije maturirao na Holivudskoj srednjoj školi 1927.[12][13]
Šokli je diplomirao na Kaltehu 1932. i doktorirao na MIT-u 1936. Naziv njegove doktorske teze je bio Elektronski bendovi u natrijum hloridu, tema koju je predložio njegov savetnik za tezu, Džon K. Slejter.[14]
Patenti
urediŠokliju je odobreno preko devedeset američkih patenata.[15] Neki značajni su:
- US 2502488 Semiconductor Amplifier.
- US 2569347 Circuit element utilizing semiconductive material.
- US 2655609 Bistable Circuits.
- US 2787564 Forming Semiconductive Devices by Ionic Bombardment.
- US 3031275 Process for Growing Single Crystals.
- US 3053635 Method of Growing Silicon Carbide Crystals.
Bibliografija
urediŠoklijevi predratni članci
uredi- Johnson, R. P.; Shockley, W. (15. 3. 1936). „An Electron Microscope for Filaments: Emission and Adsorption by Tungsten Single Crystals”. Physical Review. American Physical Society (APS). 49 (6): 436—440. Bibcode:1936PhRv...49..436J. ISSN 0031-899X. doi:10.1103/physrev.49.436.
- Slater, J. C.; Shockley, W. (15. 10. 1936). „Optical Absorption by the Alkali Halides”. Physical Review. American Physical Society (APS). 50 (8): 705—719. Bibcode:1936PhRv...50..705S. ISSN 0031-899X. doi:10.1103/physrev.50.705.
- Shockley, William (15. 10. 1936). „Electronic Energy Bands in Sodium Chloride”. Physical Review. American Physical Society (APS). 50 (8): 754—759. Bibcode:1936PhRv...50..754S. ISSN 0031-899X. doi:10.1103/physrev.50.754.
- Shockley, W. (15. 10. 1937). „The Empty Lattice Test of the Cellular Method in Solids”. Physical Review. American Physical Society (APS). 52 (8): 866—872. Bibcode:1937PhRv...52..866S. ISSN 0031-899X. doi:10.1103/physrev.52.866.
- Shockley, William (15. 8. 1939). „On the Surface States Associated with a Periodic Potential”. Physical Review. American Physical Society (APS). 56 (4): 317—323. Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..317S. ISSN 0031-899X. doi:10.1103/physrev.56.317.
- Steigman, J.; Shockley, W.; Nix, F. C. (1. 7. 1939). „The Self-Diffusion of Copper”. Physical Review. American Physical Society (APS). 56 (1): 13—21. Bibcode:1939PhRv...56...13S. ISSN 0031-899X. doi:10.1103/physrev.56.13.
Šoklijevi posleratni članci
uredi- Shockley, W. (1949). „The Theory of p-n Junctions in Semiconductors and p-n Junction Transistors”. Bell System Technical Journal. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 28 (3): 435—489. ISSN 0005-8580. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03645.x.
- Shockley, W.; Pearson, G. L.; Haynes, J. R. (1949). „Hole Injection in Germanium-Quantitative Studies and Filamentary Transistors”. Bell System Technical Journal. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 28 (3): 344—366. ISSN 0005-8580. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1949.tb03641.x.
- Shockley, W. (1951). „Hot Electrons in Germanium and Ohm's Law”. Bell System Technical Journal. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 30 (4): 990—1034. ISSN 0005-8580. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1951.tb03692.x.
- Shockley, W. (1954). „Negative Resistance Arising from Transit Time in Semiconductor Diodes”. Bell System Technical Journal. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 33 (4): 799—826. ISSN 0005-8580. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1954.tb03742.x.
- Sze, S. M.; Shockley, W. (6. 5. 1967). „Unit-Cube Expression for Space-Charge Resistance”. Bell System Technical Journal. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). 46 (5): 837—842. ISSN 0005-8580. doi:10.1002/j.1538-7305.1967.tb01716.x.
- "On the Statistics of Individual Variations of Productivity in Research Laboratories", Shockley 1957
- On heredity, dysgenics and social issues:
- Shockley 1965, "Is Quality of US Population Declining." U.S. News & World Report, November 22, pp. 68–71
- Shockley 1966, "Possible Transfer of Metallurgical and Astronomical Approaches to Problem of Environment versus Ethnic Heredity" (on an early form of admixture analysis)
- Shockley 1966, "Population Control or Eugenics." In J. D. Roslansky (ed.), Genetics and the Future of Man (New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts)
- Shockley 1967, "The Entrenched Dogmatism of Inverted Liberals", manuscript by Shockley from which major portions were read in lectures
- Shockley 1968, "Proposed Research to Reduce Racial Aspects of the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty", proposal read by Shockley before the National Academy of Science on April 24, 1968
- Shockley 1968, "Ten Point Position Statement on Human Quality Problems", revised by Shockley from a talk which he presented on "Human Quality Problems and Research Taboos"
- Shockley 1969, "An Analysis Leading to a Recommendation Concerning Inquiry into Eugenic Legislation", press release by Shockley, Stanford University, April 28, 1969
- Shockley 1970, "A 'Try Simplest Cases' Approach to the Heredity-Poverty-Crime Problem." In V. L. Allen (ed.), Psychological Factors in Poverty (Chicago: Markham)
- Shockley 1979, "Proposed NAS Resolution, drafted October 17, 1970", proposed by Shockley before the National Academy of Sciences
- Shockley 1970, "New Methodology to Reduce the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty About Dysgenics"
- Shockley 1971, "Hardy-Weinberg Law Generalized to Estimate Hybrid Variance for Negro Populations and Reduce Racial Aspects of the Environment-Heredity Uncertainty"
- Shockley 1971, "Dysgenics – A Social Problem Evaded by the Illusion of Infinite Plasticity of Human Intelligence?", manuscript planned for reading at the American Psychological Association Symposium entitled: "Social Problems: Illusion, Delusion or Reality."
- "Models, Mathematics, and the Moral Obligation to Diagnose the Origin of Negro IQ Deficits", W. Shockley, (1971) [16]
- "Negro IQ Deficit: Failure of a 'Malicious Coincidence' Model Warrants New Research Proposals", Shockley 1971[17]
- "Dysgenics, Geneticity, Raceology: A Challenge to the Intellectual Responsibility of Educators", Shockley 1972a[18]
- "A Debate Challenge: Geneticity Is 80% for White Identical Twins' I.Q.'s", Shockley 1972b[19]
- Shockley 1972, "Proposed Resolution Regarding the 80% Geneticity Estimate for Caucasian IQ", advance press release concerning a paper presented by Shockley
- Shockley 1973, "Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg Frequencies Caused by Assortative Mating in Hybrid Populations"[20]
- Shockley 1974, "Eugenic, or Anti-Dysgenic, Thinking Exercises", press release by Shockley dated 1974 May 3
- Shockley 1974, "Society Has a Moral Obligation to Diagnose Tragic Racial IQ Deficits", prepared statement by Shockley to be read during his debate against Roy Innis
- Shockley 1978, "Has Intellectual Humanitarianism Gone Berserk?", introductory statement read by Shockley prior to a lecture given by him at UT Dallas
- Shockley 1979, "Anthropological Taboos About Determinations of Racial Mixes", press release by Shockley on October 16, 1979
- Shockley 1980, "Sperm Banks and Dark-Ages Dogmatism", position paper presented by Shockley in a lecture to the Rotary Club of Chico, California, April 16, 1980
- Shockley 1981, "Intelligence in Trouble", article by Shockley published in Leaders magazine, issue dated 1981 Jun 15
Šoklijeve knjige
uredi- Shockley, William – Electrons and holes in semiconductors, with applications to transistor electronics, Krieger (1956) ISBN 0-88275-382-7
- Shockley, William and Gong, Walter A – Mechanics Charles E. Merrill, Inc. (1966)
- Shockley, William and Pearson, Roger – Shockley on Eugenics and Race: The Application of Science to the Solution of Human Problems, Scott-Townsend (1992) ISBN 1-878465-03-1
Intervjui
urediReference
uredi- ^ „William B. Shockley | American physicist | Britannica”. www.britannica.com (na jeziku: engleski). Pristupljeno 2022-01-23.
- ^ „The Nobel Prize in Physics 1956”. NobelPrize.org (na jeziku: engleski). Pristupljeno 3. 1. 2019.
- ^ Borrell, Jerry (2001). „They would be gods”. Upside. 13 (10): 53 — preko ABI/INFORM Global.
- ^ Boyer, Edward J. (14. 8. 1989). „Controversial Nobel Laureate Shockley Dies”. Los Angeles Times. Pristupljeno 11. 5. 2015.
- ^ Saxon 1989
- ^ Sparks, Hogan & Linville 1991, str. 130–132
- ^ „Inventors of the transistor followed diverse paths after 1947 discovery”. Bangor Daily News. Associated Press. 26. 12. 1987. Pristupljeno 2022-07-13. „Although he has received less publicity in recent years, his views have become, if anything, more extreme. He suggested in an interview the possibility of bonus payments to black people for undergoing voluntary sterilization.”
- ^ „Contributors to Proceedings of the I.R.E”. Proceedings of the IRE. 40 (11): 1605—1612. 1952. doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1952.274003.
- ^ Shurkin 2006, str. 5
- ^ „Palo Alto History”. www.paloaltohistory.org. Pristupljeno 14. 12. 2020. „In Palo Alto, William's temper improved little at first. But ignoring psychiatric recommendations for more socialization, his parents decided to home school William until age eight. Finally, feeling they were unable to keep him out of a school setting any longer, they sent him to the Homer Avenue School for two years, where his behavior improved dramatically --- he even earned an "A" in comportment in his first year.”
- ^ „William Shockley”. American Institute of Physics (na jeziku: engleski). 10. 9. 1974. Pristupljeno 2022-07-17.
- ^ Hiltzik, Michael A. (2. 12. 2001). „The Twisted Legacy of William Shockley”. Los Angeles Times.
- ^ Moll, John L. (1995). A Biographical Memoir of William Bradford Shockley (PDF). Washington, D.C.: National Academies Press.
- ^ Shurkin 2006, str. 38–39
- ^ „Google Patents assignee:(Shockley William)”. patents.google.com. Pristupljeno 12. 12. 2020.
- ^ Shockley, William (1971). „Models, Mathematics, and the Moral Obligation to Diagnose the Origin of Negro IQ Deficits”. Review of Educational Research. 41 (4): 369—377. ISSN 0034-6543. JSTOR 1169443. doi:10.2307/1169443.
- ^ Shockley, William (1971). „Negro IQ Deficit: Failure of a "Malicious Coincidence" Model Warrants New Research Proposals”. Review of Educational Research. 41 (3): 227—248. ISSN 0034-6543. JSTOR 1169529. doi:10.2307/1169529.
- ^ Shockley, Wiliam; Shockley, William (1972). „Dysgenics, Geneticity, Raceology: A Chalenge to the Intelectual Responsibility of Educators”. The Phi Delta Kappan. 53 (5): 297—307. ISSN 0031-7217. JSTOR 20373194.
- ^ Shockley, William (1972). „A Debate Challenge: Geneticity Is 80% for White Identical Twins' I.Q.'s”. The Phi Delta Kappan. 53 (7): 415—419. ISSN 0031-7217. JSTOR 20373251.
- ^ Shockley, William (1973). „Deviations from Hardy-Weinberg Frequencies Caused by Assortative Mating in Hybrid Populations”. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 70 (3): 732—736. Bibcode:1973PNAS...70..732S. ISSN 0027-8424. JSTOR 62346. PMC 433346
. PMID 4514986. doi:10.1073/pnas.70.3.732 .
Literatura
uredi- Park, Lubinski & Benbow 2010, "There were two young boys, Luis Alvarez and William Shockley, who were among the many who took Terman's tests but missed the cutoff score. Despite their exclusion from a study of young 'geniuses,' both went on to study physics, earn PhDs, and win the Nobel prize."
- Leslie 2000, "We also know that two children who were tested but didn't make the cut – William Shockley and Luis Alvarez – went on to win the Nobel Prize in Physics. According to Hastorf, none of the Terman kids ever won a Nobel or Pulitzer."
- Shurkin 2006, str. 13 (See also "The Truth About the 'Termites'" Kaufman, S. B. 2009)
- Simonton 1999, str. 4 "When Terman first used the IQ test to select a sample of child geniuses, he unknowingly excluded a special child whose IQ did not make the grade. Yet a few decades later that talent received the Nobel Prize in physics: William Shockley, the cocreator of the transistor. Ironically, not one of the more than 1,500 children who qualified according to his IQ criterion received so high an honor as adults."
- Eysenck 1998, str. 127–128 "Terman, who originated those 'Genetic Studies of Genius', as he called them, selected ... children on the basis of their high IQs, the mean was 151 for both sexes. Seventy–seven who were tested with the newly translated and standardized Binet test had IQs of 170 or higher–well at or above the level of Cox's geniuses. What happened to these potential geniuses–did they revolutionize society? ... The answer in brief is that they did very well in terms of achievement, but none reached the Nobel Prize level, let alone that of genius. ... It seems clear that these data powerfully confirm the suspicion that intelligence is not a sufficient trait for truly creative achievement of the highest grade."
- Brittain, J.E. (1984). „Becker and Shive on the transistor”. Proceedings of the IEEE. 72 (12): 1695. ISSN 0018-9219. S2CID 1616808. doi:10.1109/PROC.1984.13075. „an observation that William Shockley interpreted as confirmation of his concept of that junction transistor”
- Eysenck, Hans (1998). Intelligence: A New Look. New Brunswick (NJ): Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7658-0707-6.
- Giangreco, D. M. (1997). „Casualty Projections for the U.S. Invasions of Japan, 1945-1946: Planning and Policy Implications”. Journal of Military History. 61 (3): 521—581. ISSN 0899-3718. JSTOR 2954035. S2CID 159870872. doi:10.2307/2954035.
- Goodheart, Adam (2. 7. 2006). „10 Days That Changed History”. The New York Times. Pristupljeno 2. 1. 2015.
- Leslie, Mitchell (2000). „The Vexing Legacy of Lewis Terman”. Stanford Magazine. Arhivirano iz originala 26. 08. 2021. g. Pristupljeno 5. 6. 2013.
- Park, Gregory; Lubinski, David; Benbow, Camilla P. (2. 11. 2010). „Recognizing Spatial Intelligence”. Scientific American. Pristupljeno 5. 6. 2013.
- Shurkin, Joel (2006). Broken Genius: The Rise and Fall of William Shockley, Creator of the Electronic Age. London: Macmillan. ISBN 978-1-4039-8815-7.
- Brian Clegg (2. 6. 2013). „Review - Broken Genius - Joel Shurkin”. Popular Science. Arhivirano iz originala 3. 3. 2016. g. Pristupljeno 13. 11. 2010.
- Simonton, Dean Keith (1999). Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512879-6. JSTOR 3080746.
- Riordan, Michael; Hoddeson, Lillian (1997). Crystal Fire: The Invention of the Transistor and the Birth of the Information Age. Sloan Technology Series. New York: Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-04124-8.
- Arthur P. Molella (jul 2000). „Crystal Fire: The Birth of the Information Age (review)”. Technology and Culture. 41 (3): 623—625. doi:10.1353/tech.2000.0121.
- Saxon, Wolfgang (14. 8. 1989). „William B. Shockley, 79, Creator of Transistor and Theory on Race”. The New York Times. Pristupljeno 2. 1. 2015. „He drew further scorn when he proposed financial rewards for the genetically disadvantaged if they volunteered for sterilization.”
- „Contributors to Proceedings of the I.R.E.”. Proceedings of the I.R.E. novembar 1952. str. 1611. Arhivirano iz originala 2012-11-26. g.
- Sparks, Morgan; Hogan, Lester; Linville, John (1991). „[Obituary:] William Shockley”. Physics Today. 44 (6): 130—132. Bibcode:1991PhT....44f.130S. ISSN 0031-9228. doi:10.1063/1.2810155.
- Tucker, William H. (2007). The funding of scientific racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 978-0-252-07463-9.
- Andrew S. Winston (jul 2003). „The Funding of Scientific Racism: Wickliffe Draper and the Pioneer Fund (review)”. Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences. 58 (3): 391—392. doi:10.1093/jhmas/jrg016.
Spoljašnje veze
uredi
- National Academy of Sciences biography
- Vilijam Šokli na sajtu Nobelprize.org including his Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1956 Transistor Technology Evokes New Physics
- PBS biography
- Gordon Moore. Biography of William Shockley Time Magazine
- Interview with Shockley biographer Joel Shurkin
- Oral history interview transcript for William Shockley on 10 September 1974, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives - interview conducted by Lillian Hoddeson in Murray Hill, New Jersey
- History of the transistor
- William Shockley (IEEE Global History Network)
- Shockley and Bardeen-Brattain patent disputes
- William Shockley vs. Francis Cress-Welsing (Tony Brown Show, 1974)
- Vilijam Šokli na sajtu WorldCat (jezik: engleski)
- Guide to the William Shockley Papers SC0222
