Upanišade
Upanišade (sanskrit: उपनिषद् upaniṣad - istina, vrlina) su hinduistički spisi koji čine srž učenja vedante. To su drevni sanskritski tekstovi koji sadrže neke od centralnih filozofskih koncepata i ideja hinduizma, deo kojih je zajednički sa religioznim tradicijama kao što su budizam i džainizam.[1][2][3] Ove rasprave su deo veda kojima se nastoji da se sadržina filozofski obrazloži.
Najstarije Upanišade potiču iz predbudističkog, a mlađe iz hrišćanskog doba. Upanišade su između 700. i 500. p. n. e. satstavljali šumski asketi kao završne delove Veda. Poznate su i kao šruti, odnosno tekstovi „za slušanje“ i skoro sva njihova učenja u dijaloškoj su formi. Značenje reči upanišada je „sedeći dole pored“ gurua koji prenosi svoja učenja. Zapisano je više od stotinu kompilacija ovih dijaloga, mada je samo njih trinaest prihvaćeno za smriti, odnosno svete spise. Upanišade raspravljaju o odnosu pojedinca i svemira, o prirodi univerzalne duše, o značenju života i prirodi života posle smrti.
Upanišade su prvi tekstovi poštovani među Indijcima koji označavaju ideju da jedno nepromenjivo sopstvo prelazi iz jednog tela u drugo, i to u zavisnosti od postupaka. Tako dobri postupci donose dobre plodove, a loši rezultiraju budućom reinkarnacijom.[4]
Upanišadsko razdoblje
urediUpanišadsko razdoblje (800-450. p. n. e.) jedna ja od najvećih era stvaralačkog mišljenja u istoriji hinduizma. Bilo je obeleženo povećanim zanimanjem za pitanje ljudskog postojanja. Upanišadske askete su bili filozovi, učitelji i vidovnjaci. Živeli su po šumskim skolništima. Dane su provodili u proučavanjima, posmatranjima i pretresanju zbunjujućih pitanja o kosmosu. Ovi pustinjaci su privlačili mlade dihove koji su se nadali da će se uključiti u njihove rasprave i tako dostići prosvetljenje.
Tradicija upanišada srodna je sa drugim asketskim tradicijama koje su se razvile u isto vreme ili kasnije. One su poznate kao šramana i karakteriše ih ideologija povlačenja iz sveta i praktikovanja asketizma. U tekstovima nastalim od 800. do 400. godine pre naše ere mnogo je tragova ovakvih verovanja i učenja po kojima je život patnja, a oslobađanje dolazi jedino kroz prekidanje veza sa svetom. Najvažnije od ovih tradicija, koje su se održale i kasnije razvile, jesu budizam i đainizam.[4]
Rukopisi
urediDva najstarija (oko 700.-500. p. n. e.) i najznačajnija upanišadska rukopisa su ’’Brihadaranjaka Upanišada” i ’’Čandogja Upanišada”. U ovoj drugoj pitanje je tako postavljeno kako bi odgovor mogao pokazati ondos između žrtvene vatre na oltaru, vatre sunca i tapas tapasa (vatre razumevanja). Pitanje se odnosi na stvaralačke moći svemira. Formulisano je ovako: Kakva je priroda Jednog koje je uzrok svekolikog postojanja? Odgovor raspravlja o kreativnim moćma tapasa, žrtvovanja i vrhovne istine, brahmana.
Verovanja
urediProučavaoci Upanišada verovali su da je važan ne zamo čin žrtvovanja, već pre njegov duh. Verovali su da meditacijom ili posmatranjem mogu spoznati svoj odnos prema bogovima i poreklo ove božanske povezanosti. Takođe su želeli da saznaju šta su zapravo i u kakvom su odnosu sa Apsolutnom Realnošću, odnosno brahmanom.
Verovalo se da kod posvećenog učenika ovakva duhovna posmatranja i traženja uzrokuju tapas (žar znanja). Ostavljajući po strani sve ostalo, on to u stvari „žrtvuje“. Tako su napuštali, odnosno „žrtvovali“ ovozemaljske stvari i time ih prinosili na oltar sopstvenoga srca. Ovakva samožrtvovanja obavljana su istovremeno sa vatrenim žrtvovanjima vedskih sveštenika.
Upanišadske askete su žrtvovale svoje jastvo, disciplinovali telo i čeznuli za prosvetljenjem. Verovali su da se time pokazuje snaga za prevazilaženje zemaljskih stvari i razmatranje važnih pitanja o stvarnosti. Tako je stvoreno mišljenje da pojedinac, iza porvšnog jastva, poseduje suštinsko ili stvarno jastvo. Pitanje je dakle, bilo, kakvo je to suštinsko jastvo i kako se može dosegnuti. Na ovo pitanje, važno i za moderni hinduizam, delimično je dat odgovor novom idejom o Apsolutnom.
U Upanišadama su svi brojni bogovi vedske tradicije svedeni na jednog, brahmana. Verovalo se da je on vrhovna suština svemira. Ova suština se nalazi u svemiru, u različitim oblicima pojavnog sveta i u duši pojedinca.
Glavna tema upanišadskih mislilaca bila je ideja da je duša pojedinca, atman, odvojni deo brahmana, univerzalne duše. Od upanišadske ere se verovalo da atman, ili duša pojedinca, jeste brahman, univerzalna duša. Izdvojana ja kao atman, ali se po dostizanju mokše, spasenja, ponovo ujedinjuje sa brahmanom. Konačno, reč brahman odnosila se na univerzalnu suštinu u kojoj su sadržane sve vrste moći. Ideja atmana-brahmana ponovljena je u čuvenoj rečenici Čandogja Upanišade „tat tvam asi“, bukvalno, „ti si to“. To znači da ne postoji razlika između pojedinačnog i opšteg.
Reference
uredi- ^ Wendy Doniger (1990), Textual Sources for the Study of Hinduism. (1st изд.). University of Chicago Press. pp. 2-3. ISBN 978-0226618470.; Quote: "The Upanishads supply the basis of later Hindu philosophy; they are widely known and quoted by most well-educated Hindus, and their central ideas have also become a part of the spiritual arsenal of rank-and-file Hindus."
- ^ Wiman Dissanayake (1993), Self as Body in Asian Theory and Practice (Editors: Thomas P. Kasulis et al). . State University of New York Press. pp. 39. ISBN 978-0791410806.; Michael McDowell and Nathan Brown (2009), World Religions, Penguin. ISBN 978-1592578467. str. 208-210.
- ^ Samuel 2010.
- ^ a b Kembridžova ilustrovana istorija religije (pp. 35-36), Stylos. . Novi Sad. 2006. ISBN 978-86-7473-281-6.
Литература
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Dodatna literatura
uredi- Davids, T. W. Rhys (1899). „The Theory of 'Soul' in the Upanishads”. Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland: 71—87. JSTOR 25208067.
- Modak, M. S. (1931). „Spinozistic Substance and Upanishadic Self: A Comparative Study”. Philosophy. 6 (24): 446—458. JSTOR 3746162. doi:10.1017/S0031819100032393.
- Davenport, A. (1952). „W. B. Yeats and the Upanishads”. The Review of English Studies. 3 (9): 55—62. JSTOR 511150.
- Mathur, D. C. (1972). „The Concept of Self in the Upanishads: An Alternative Interpretation”. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research. 32 (3): 390—396. JSTOR 2105571. doi:10.2307/2105571.
Spoljašnje veze
uredi- Complete set of 108 Upanishads, Manuscripts with the commentary of Brahma-Yogin, Adyar Library
- Upanishads, Sanskrit documents in various formats
- The Upaniṣads article in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy