Rasa
Rasa, kao socijalna konstrukcija, se odnosi grupa ljudi sličnih i izrazitih fizičkih osobina.[1][2][3][4][5] U početku, ova reč se koristila da opiše ljude koji pričaju isti jezik, a kasnije da odredi kom narodu pripada pojedinac , početkom 17. veka, reč rasa počinje da se odnosi na fizičke osobine. Taj termin se često koristio u biološkom taksonomskom smislu i početkom 19. veka se koristi da bi odredili genetski različita stanovništva ljudi definisana određenim fenotipom.[6][7]
Društveno shvatanje i grupisanje rasa se menjaju vremenom, uključujući i narodne taksonomije[6] koje određuju tipove pojedinaca na osnovu očiglednih osobina. Naučnici smatraju da je biološki esencijalizam zastareo,[8] i uglavnom obeshrabruju korišćenje racionalnih objašnjenja za kolektivno razlikovanje u fizičkim osobinama, kao i osobinama ponašanja.[9][10][11][12][13]
Čak iako postoji širok dogovor među naučnicima da su esencijalističke i tipološke konceptualizacije rasa neodržive, naučnici u svetu nastavljaju da konceptualizuju rase na mnogo različitih načina, neke od kojih imaju esencijalističke implikacije.[14] Dok neki istraživači ponekad koriste koncept rase da bi pravili razlike između skupova osobina koje se teško razlikuju, drugi u naučnoj zajednici predlažu da je ideja rasa često korišćena na naivan[9] i pojednostavljen način,[15] i tvrde da, među ljudima, rase nemaju taksonomskog značaja ističući da svi ljudi pripadaju istoj vrsti, Homo sapiens, i pod vrsti, Homo sapiens sapiens.[16][17]
Od druge polovine 20. veka, povezivanje reči rasa sa ideologijama i teorijama koje su nastale radom antropologa i fiziologa u 19 veku, čine korišćenje ove reči veoma problematičnim. Iako se još uvek koristi u opštim kontekstima, reč rasa su zamenile druge reči kao što su narod, ljudi, etničke grupe i zajednice, u zavisnosti od konteksta.[18][11]
Komplikacije i razne definicije koncepta
urediPostoji široki konsenzus da su rasne kategorije koje su uobičajene u svakodnevnoj upotrebi društveno konstruisani, i da rasne grupe ne mogu biti biološki definisani.[19][20][21][22][23][24] Ipak, neki naučnici tvrde da su rasne kategorije očigledno u uzajamnoj vezi sa biološkim osobinama (npr fenotipom) u izvesnoj meri, i da neki genetski markeri imaju različite učestalosti među ljudskim stanovništvom, od kojih neki odgovaraju više ili manje tradicionalnim rasnim grupama. Iz tog razloga, trenutno ne postoji konsenzus o tome da li se može smatrati rasnim kategorijama da imaju značaj za razumevanje ljudskih genetskih varijacija.[25]
Kada ljudi definišu i razgovaraju o određenoj koncepciji rase, oni stvaraju društvenu stvarnost kroz koju se postiže društvena kategorizacija.[26] U tom smislu, za rase se kaže da su društvene konstrukcije.[6] Ove konstrukcije se razvijaju u različitim pravnim, privrednim i društveno-političkim kontekstima, a može biti posledica, a ne uzrok, glavnih društvenih situacija.[6] Dok mnogi shvataju rase kao društveni konstrukt , mnogi naučnici se slažu da rasa ima materijalnog uticaja na živote ljudi zbog preferenca i diskriminacije.
Društveno-privredni faktori, u kombinaciji sa ranijim ali i trajnim stavovima rase, doveli su do značajne patnje u nepovoljnom položaju rasnih grupa. Rasna diskriminacija se često poklapa sa rasističkim mentalitetom.[27] Kao rezultat toga, rasne grupe koje poseduju relativno malo snage često se nađu isključene , dok hegemonistički pojedinci i institucije optužene za držanje rasističkih stavova.[6] Rasizam je doveo do brojnih tragedija, uključujući ropstvo i genocid.[28]
U nekim zemljama, policija koristi rase kao način određivanja profila osumnjičenog. Ova upotreba rasnih kategorija je često kritikovana zato što nastavlja da širi već odavno prevaziđena mišljenja o biološkim varijacijama, kao i promovisanje predrasuda. Jer u nekim društvima rasne skupine odgovaraju blisko sa obrascima društvene stratifikacije, za sociologa koji studira društvene nejednakosti, rasa može biti značajna promenljiva. Kao sociološki faktori, rasne kategorije mogu delimično odražavaju subjektivne atribute, self-identitete i društvene ustanove.[29][30]
Naučnici i dalje raspravljaju o stepeni na kojoj rasne kategorije su biološki opravdane i društveno konstruisane, kao i stepen u kojem se stvarnost rase mora priznati da bi društvo shvatilo i da se prema rasizmu ophodi adekvatno.[6] Shodno tome, rasne paradigme zaposlene u različitim disciplinama se razlikuju u njihovom akcentom na biološko smanjenje kao suprotnosti sa društvenom konstrukdžijom.
U društvenim naukama, teorijski okviri, kao što su rasna teorija formiranja i kritičke teorije rase istražuju implikacije rase kao društvene konstrukcije istražujući kako su slike, ideje i pretpostavke o rasi izražene u svakodnevnom životu. Velika količina naučnika su pratili odnose između istorijskog, društvenog proizvoda rase u pravnom i kriminalnom jeziku, i njihovi efekti na rad policije i nesrazmernim hapšenjem pojedinih grupa.
Reference
uredi- ^ Anemone, Robert L. (2011). Race and Human Diversity: A Biocultural Approach. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-131-83876-5.
- ^ Takezawa, Yasuko I. "Race (human)".
- ^ Cartmill, Matt (1998).
- ^ "The Race Question" (PDF).
- ^ Wade, Nicholas (May 9, 2014).
- ^ a b v g d đ See:
- ^ Keita, S. O. Y.; Kittles, R. A.; Royal, C. D. M.; Bonney, G. E.; Furbert-Harris, P.; Dunston, G. M.; Rotimi, C. N. (2004).
- ^ Sober 2000
- ^ a b Lee et al. 2008: "We caution against making the naive leap to a genetic explanation for group differences in complex traits, especially for human behavioral traits such as IQ scores"
- ^ AAA 1998: "For example, 'Evidence from the analysis of genetics (e.g., DNA) indicates that most physical variation, about 94%, lies within so-called racial groups.
- ^ a b Keita, S O Y; Kittles, Royal, Bonney, Furbert-Harris, Dunston, Rotimi; Royal, C D M; Bonney, G E; Furbert-Harris, P; Dunston, G M; Rotimi, C N (2004).
- ^ Harrison, Guy (2010).
- ^ Roberts, Dorothy (2011).
- ^ Lieberman, L.; Kaszycka, K. A.; Martinez Fuentes, A. J.; Yablonsky, L.; Kirk, R. C.; Strkalj, G.; Wang, Q.; Sun, L. (December 2004).
- ^ Graves 2001
- ^ Keita et al. 2004
- ^ AAPA 1996 "Pure races, in the sense of genetically homogeneous populations, do not exist in the human species today, nor is there any evidence that they have ever existed in the past."-p.714
- ^ "Race2" Arhivirano na sajtu Wayback Machine (11. jul 2012).
- ^ Marks, Jonathan (2003).
- ^ Templeton, A. R. (1998).
- ^ Williams, S. M.; Templeton, A. R. (2003).
- ^ Templeton, A. R. "The genetic and evolutionary significance of human races".
- ^ American; Anthropological, Physical.
- ^ Steve Olson, Mapping Human History: Discovering the Past Through Our Genes, Boston, 2002
- ^ Bamshad, M.; Wooding, S.; Salisbury, B. A.; Stephens, J. C. (2004).
- ^ Lee 1997
- ^ Lee 1997 citing Morgan 1975 and Appiah 1992
- ^ Owens & King 1999
- ^ King 2007: For example, "the association of blacks with poverty and welfare ... is due, not to race per se, but to the link that race has with poverty and its associated disadvantages"–p.75.
- ^ Schaefer 2008: "In many parts of Latin America, racial groupings are based less on the biological physical features and more on an intersection between physical features and social features such as economic class, dress, education, and context.
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Spoljašnje veze
uredi- When racism was respectable: Franz Boas on The Categorization of Human Types
- Race (Stamford Encyclopedia)
- Race: the Power of an Illusion companion website to California Newsreel feature, 2003, PBS
- Is Race "Real"? Архивирано на сајту Wayback Machine (17. новембар 2017), forum by the Social Science Research Council.
- US Census Bureau: Definition of Race
- "Standards for Maintaining, Collecting, and Presenting Federal Data on Race and Ethnicity", Federal Register, 1997, Department of Interior
- RACE: Are we so different?, a public education program by the American Anthropological Association.